Advances in coastal modeling and computation provide the opportunity for examining non-hydrostatic and compressible fluid effects at very small scales, but the cost of these new capabilities and the accuracy of these models versus trusted non-hydrostatic codes has yet to be determined. Here the Coastal and Regional Ocean COmmunity model (CROCO) and the NCAR Large-Eddy Simulations (NCAR-LES) code base are compared with a focus on their simulation accuracy and computational efficiency. These models differ significantly in numerics and capabilities, so they are run on common classic problems of surface-forced, boundary-layer turbulence. In accuracy, we compare turbulence statistics, including the effect of the explicit sub-grid scale (SGS) parameterization, the effect of the second (dilatational) viscosity and the sensitivity to the speed-of-sound, which is used as part of the CROCO compressible turbulence formulation. To gauge how far CROCO is from the NCAR-LES, we first compare the NCAR-LES with two other LES codes (PALM and Oceanigans). To judge efficiency of CROCO, strong and weak scaling simulation sets vary different problem sizes and workload per processor, respectively. Additionally, the effects of 2D decomposition of CROCO and NCAR-LES and supercomputer settings are tested. In sum, the accuracy comparison between CROCO and the NCAR-LES is similar to the NCAR-LES versus other LES codes. However, the additional capabilities of CROCO (e.g., nesting and realism) and its compressible turbulence formulation come with roughly an order of magnitude of additional costs despite efforts to reduce them by adjusting the second viscosity and sound speed as far as accuracy allows.

While various parameterizations of vertical turbulent fluxes at different levels of complexity have been proposed, each has its own limitations. For example, simple first-order closure schemes such as the K-Profile Parameterization (KPP) lack energetic constraints; two-equation models like k-ε directly solve an equation for the turbulent kinetic energy but do not account for non-diffusive fluxes, and high-order closures that include the high-order transport terms are computationally expensive. To address these, we extend the Assumed-Distribution Higher-Order Closure (ADC) framework originally proposed for the atmospheric boundary layer and apply it to the ocean surface boundary layer. By assuming a probability distribution function relationship between the vertical velocity and tracers, all second-order and higher-order moments are exactly constructed and turbulence closure is achieved in the ADC scheme. In addition, this ADC parameterization has full energetic constraints and includes non-diffusive fluxes without the computational cost of a full higher-order closure scheme. We have tested the ADC scheme against a combination of large eddy simulation (LES), KPP, and k-ε for surface buoyancy-driven convective mixing and found that the ADC scheme is robust with different vertical resolutions and compares well to the LES results.

This work evaluates the fidelity of various upper ocean turbulence parameterizations subject to realistic monsoon forcing and presents a finite-time ensemble vector (EV) method to better manage the design and numerical principles of these parameterizations. The EV method emphasizes the dynamics of a turbulence closure multi-model ensemble and is applied to evaluate ten different ocean surface boundary layer (OSBL) parameterizations within a single column (SC) model against two boundary layer large eddy simulations (LES). Both LES include realistic surface forcing, but one includes wind-driven shear turbulence only, while the other includes additional Stokes forcing through the wave-average equations that generates Langmuir turbulence. The finite-time EV framework focuses on what constitutes the local behavior of the mixed layer dynamical system and isolates the forcing and ocean state conditions where turbulence parameterizations most disagree. Identifying disagreement provides the potential to evaluate SC models comparatively against the LES. Observations collected during the 2018 Monsoon onset in the Bay of Bengal provide a case study to evaluate models under realistic and variable forcing conditions. The case study results highlight two regimes where models disagree a) during wind-driven deepening of the mixed layer and b) under strong diurnal forcing.

A process study using Large-eddy simulations (LES) is carried out to explore the dominant 1-D processes that affect mixed layer (ML) properties during an event of summer Monsoon Intra-seasonal Oscillations (MISO) in the Bay of Bengal. These simulations use realistic air-sea fluxes and initial conditions that were collected during the summer 2018 MISO-BOB field experiment to explore the roles of thermal inversion layer (TIL) and Langmuir turbulence (LT) in modulating ML properties. The simulations span an active period with heavy rain and strong winds and a break period with strong solar heat flux and little rain. The mixed layer depth (MLD), sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface salinity (SSS) are most affected by the presence of near-inertial oscillations, solar heating and precipitation, all of which occur at different timescales. The subsurface warming induced by the TIL reduces the SST variability at the MISO timescale when compared with the simulation without TIL. Comparison of simulations with and without LT indicates that LT enhances subsurface warming during the active phase and reduces diurnal SST modulation during the break phase. Simulations with 1-D mixing models show a wide disparity in the evolution of MLD, SST and SSS.

This work documents version two of the Department of Energy's Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM). E3SMv2 is a significant evolution from its predecessor E3SMv1, resulting in a model that is nearly twice as fast and with a simulated climate that is improved in many metrics. We describe the physical climate model in its lower horizontal resolution configuration consisting of 110 km atmosphere, 165 km land, 0.5° river routing model, and an ocean and sea ice with mesh spacing varying between 60 km in the mid-latitudes and 30 km at the equator and poles. The model performance is evaluated with Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Characterization of Klima simulations augmented with historical simulations as well as simulations to evaluate impacts of different forcing agents. The simulated climate has many realistic features of the climate system, with notable improvements in clouds and precipitation compared to E3SMv1. E3SMv1 suffered from an excessively high equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) of 5.3 K. In E3SMv2, ECS is reduced to 4.0 K which is now within the plausible range based on a recent World Climate Research Program assessment. However, a number of important biases remain including a weak Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, deficiencies in the characteristics and spectral distribution of tropical atmospheric variability, and a significant underestimation of the observed warming in the second half of the historical period. An analysis of single-forcing simulations indicates that correcting the historical temperature bias would require a substantial reduction in the magnitude of the aerosol-related forcing.

Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1) was the major climate event at the onset of the last deglaciation associated with rapid cooling in Greenland and lagged, slow warming in Antarctica. Although it is widely believed that temperature signals were triggered in the Northern Hemisphere and propagated southward associated with the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC), understanding how these signals were able to cross the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) barrier and further warm up Antarctica has proven particularly challenging. In this study, we explore the physical processes that lead to the Antarctic warming during HS1 in a transient isotope-enabled deglacial simulation iTRACE, in which the interpolar phasing has been faithfully reproduced. We show that the increased meridional heat transport alone, first through the ocean and then through the atmosphere, can explain the Antarctic warming during the early stage of HS1 without notable changes in the strength and position of the Southern Hemisphere midlatitude westerlies. In particular, when a reduction of the AMOC causes ocean warming to the north of the ACC, increased southward ocean heat transport by mesoscale eddies is triggered by steeper isopycnals to warm up the ocean beyond the ACC, which further decreases the sea ice concentration and leads to more absorption of insolation. The increased atmospheric heat then releases to the Antarctic primarily by a strengthening zonal wavenumber-3 (ZW3) pattern. Sensitivity experiments further suggest that a ∼4°C warming caused by this mechanism superimposed on a comparable warming driven by the background atmospheric CO2 rise is able to explain the total simulated ∼8°C warming in the West Antarctica during HS1.

The ocean surface boundary layer links the atmosphere to the ocean. At the air-sea interface, ocean surface waves play an important role in momentum, energy and gas exchange. A new parameterization with wave-induced mixing is developed based on a set of Large Eddy Simulation experiments under different wind speeds and mixed layer depths. The new parameterization scheme is then incorporated into a one-dimensional turbulence model for verification. The inclusion of wave-induced mixing reduces the excessively high surface temperature simulated in summer and reduces the underestimation of the mixed layer depth in winter. Compared to the observation at Ocean Station Papa, the parameterization scheme with wave effects produces statistically more accurate results than the parameterization scheme without wave effects.

This paper documents the experimental setup and general features of the coupled historical and future climate simulations with the first version of the US Department of Energy (DOE) Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SMv1.0). The future projected climate characteristics of E3SMv1.0 at the highest emission scenario (SSP5-8.5) designed in the Scenario Model Intercomparison Project (ScenarioMIP) and the SSP5-8.5 greenhouse gas (GHG) only forcing experiment are analyzed with a focus on regional responses of atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, and land.
Due to its high equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS of 5.3 K), E3SMv1.0 is one of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) models with the largest surface warming by the end of the 21st century under the high-emission SSP5-8.5 scenario. The global mean precipitation change is highly correlated with the global temperature change, while the spatial pattern of the change in runoff is consistent with the precipitation changes. The oceanic mixed layer generally shoals throughout the global ocean. The annual mean Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is overly weak with a slower change from ∼ 11 to ∼ 6 Sv (Sverdrup) relative to other CMIP6 models. The sea ice, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, decreases rapidly with large seasonal variability. We detect a significant polar amplification in E3SMv1.0 from the atmosphere, ocean, and sea ice.
Comparing the SSP5-8.5 all-forcing experiment with the GHG-only experiment, we find that the unmasking of the aerosol effects due to the decline of the aerosol loading in the future projection period causes transient accelerated warming in the all-forcing experiment in the first half of the 21st century. While the oceanic climate response is mainly controlled by the GHG forcing, the land runoff response is impacted primarily by forcings other than GHG over certain regions, e.g., southern North America, southern Africa, central Africa, and eastern Asia. However, the importance of the GHG forcing on the land runoff changes grows in the future climate projection period compared to the historical period.

Empirically generated indices are used to evaluate the skill of a global climate model in representing the monsoon intraseasonal oscillation (MISO). This work adapts the method of Suhas et al., an extended empirical orthogonal function (EEOF) analysis of daily rainfall data with the first orthogonal function indicating MISO strength and phase. This method is applied to observed rainfall and Community Earth System Model (CESM1.2) simulation results. Variants of the CESM1.2 including upper ocean parameterizations for Langmuir turbulence and submesoscale mixed layer eddy restratification are used together with the EEOF analysis to explore sensitivity of the MISO to global upper ocean process representations. The skill with which the model variants recreate the MISO strength and persistence is evaluated versus the observed MISO. While all model versions reproduce the northward rainfall propagation traditionally associated with the MISO, a version including both Langmuir turbulence and submesoscale restratification parameterizations provides the most accurate simulations of the time scale of MISO events.

The General Ocean Turbulence Model (GOTM) is a one-dimensional water column model including a set of state-of-the-art turbulence closure models, and has widely been used in various applications in the ocean modeling community. Here we extend GOTM to include a set of newly developed ocean surface vertical mixing parameterizations of Langmuir turbulence via coupling with the Community Vertical Mixing Project (CVMix). A Stokes drift module is also implemented in GOTM to provide the necessary ocean surface waves information to the Langmuir turbulence parameterizations, as well as to facilitate future development and evaluation of new Langmuir turbulence parameterizations. In addition, a streamlined workflow with Python and Jupyter Notebook is also described, enabled by the newly developed and more flexible configuration capability of GOTM. The newly implemented Langmuir turbulence parameterizations are evaluated against theoretical scalings and available observations in four test cases, including an idealized wind-driven entrainment case and three realistic cases at ocean station Papa, the northern North Sea and the central Gotland Sea, and compared with the existing General Length Scale scheme in GOTM. The results are consistent with previous studies. This development extends the capability of GOTM towards including the effects of ocean surface waves and provides useful toolsets for the ocean modeling community to further study the effects of Langmuir turbulence in a broader scope.

A multiscale modeling approach for studying the ocean surface turbulent mixing is explored by coupling an ocean general circulation model (GCM) MPAS-Ocean with the PArallel Large eddy simulation Model (PALM). The coupling approach is similar to the superparameterization approach that has been used to represent the effects of deep convection in atmospheric GCMs. However, the focus of this multiscale modeling approach is on the small-scale turbulent mixing and their interactions with the larger-scale processes in the ocean, so that a more flexible coupling strategy is used. To reduce the computational cost, a customized version of PALM is ported on the general-purpose graphics processing unit (GPU) with OpenACC, achieving 10-16 times overall speedup as compared to running on a single CPU. Even with the GPU-acceleration technique, a superparameterization-like approach to represent the ocean surface turbulent mixing in GCMs using embedded high-fidelity and three-dimensional LES over the global ocean is still computationally intensive and infeasible for long simulations. However, running PALM regionally on selected MPAS-Ocean grid cells is shown to be a promising approach moving forward. The flexible coupling between MPAS-Ocean and PALM allows further exploration of the interactions between the ocean surface turbulent mixing and larger-scale processes, as well as future development and improvement of ocean surface turbulent mixing parameterizations for GCMs.

The anisotropy and structure of turbulence simulated by large-eddy simulations with and without Stokes-drift forcing are analyzed, with an emphasis on the linkage between the distinctive structure of Langmuir turbulence near the surface where cellular vortices aligned with the wind and wave propagation direction are apparent and the Langmuir-enhanced mixed layer entrainment at the base of the ocean surface boundary layer (OSBL) where turbulent structures differ. The tensor invariants of the Reynolds stresses, the variance of vertical velocity and buoyancy, and the velocity gradient statistics are used to categorize turbulence structures as a function of depth, including an extension of the barycentric map to show the direction as well as the magnitude of turbulence anisotropy and a vector-invariant extension of the Okubo-Weiss parameter. The extended anisotropic barycentric map and the velocity gradient statistics are demonstrated to be useful, providing compact information of the anisotropy, orientation, and structure of turbulent flows. It is found that the distinctive anisotropy and structures of Langmuir turbulence are quickly lost below regions where Stokes drift shear is significant and vortices are apparent, consistent with past observations and model results. As a result, the turbulent structures near the base of the OSBL are not significantly affected by the presence of Stokes drift above but are instead dominated by local Eulerian shear, except in one important manner. Langmuir turbulence does affect the mixed layer entrainment by providing extra available turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) via enhanced near-surface TKE production and higher vertical TKE transport energizing the turbulent structures near the base of the OSBL. The additional TKE is utilized by structures similar to those that exist without Stokes drift forcing in terms of anisotropy of their Reynolds stresses, but they are more energetic because of the Langmuir turbulence. Thus, parametrizing the major aspects of Langmuir turbulence on entrainment at the base of the OSBL can be incorporated through enhancing available energy without other modifications.

This study provides an overview of the coupled high-resolution Version 1 of the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SMv1) and documents the characteristics of a 50-year-long high-resolution control simulation with time-invariant 1950 forcings following the HighResMIP protocol. In terms of global root-mean-squared error metrics, this high-resolution simulation is generally superior to results from the low-resolution configuration of E3SMv1 (due to resolution, tuning changes, and possibly initialization procedure) and compares favorably to models in the CMIP5 ensemble. Ocean and sea ice simulation is particularly improved, due to better resolution of bathymetry, the ability to capture more variability and extremes in winds and currents, and the ability to resolve mesoscale ocean eddies. The largest improvement in this regard is an ice-free Labrador Sea, which is a major problem at low resolution. Interestingly, several features found to improve with resolution in previous studies are insensitive to resolution or even degrade in E3SMv1. Most notable in this regard are warm bias and associated stratocumulus deficiency in eastern subtropical oceans and lack of improvement in El Niño. Another major finding of this study is that resolution increase had negligible impact on climate sensitivity (measured by net feedback determined through uniform +4K prescribed sea surface temperature increase) and aerosol sensitivity. Cloud response to resolution increase consisted of very minor decrease at all levels. Large-scale patterns of precipitation bias were also relatively unaffected by grid spacing.

Six recent Langmuir turbulence parameterization schemes and five traditional schemes are implemented in a common single-column modeling framework and consistently compared. These schemes are tested in scenarios versus matched large eddy simulations, across the globe with realistic forcing (JRA55-do, WAVEWATCH-III simulated waves) and initial conditions (Argo), and under realistic conditions as observed at ocean moorings. Traditional non-Langmuir schemes systematically underpredict large eddy simulation vertical mixing under weak convective forcing, while Langmuir schemes vary in accuracy. Under global, realistic forcing Langmuir schemes produce 6% (−1% to 14% for 90% confidence) or 5.2 m (−0.2 m to 17.4 m for 90% confidence) deeper monthly mean mixed layer depths than their non-Langmuir counterparts, with the greatest differences in extratropical regions, especially the Southern Ocean in austral summer. Discrepancies among Langmuir schemes are large (15% in mixed layer depth standard deviation over the mean): largest under wave-driven turbulence with stabilizing buoyancy forcing, next largest under strongly wave-driven conditions with weak buoyancy forcing, and agreeing during strong convective forcing. Non-Langmuir schemes disagree with each other to a lesser extent, with a similar ordering. Langmuir discrepancies obscure a cross-scheme estimate of the Langmuir effect magnitude under realistic forcing, highlighting limited understanding and numerical deficiencies. Maps of the regions and seasons where the greatest discrepancies occur are provided to guide further studies and observations.

In this study we develop a new parameterization for turbulent mixing in the ocean surface boundary layer (OSBL), including the effect of Langmuir turbulence. This new parameterization builds on a recent study (Reichl and Hallberg 2018, hereafter RH18), which predicts the available energy for turbulent mixing against stable stratification driven by shear and convective turbulence. To investigate the role of Langmuir turbulence in the framework of RH18, we utilize data from a suite of previously published large-eddy simulation (LES) experiments (Li and Fox-Kemper 2017, hereafter LF17) with and without Langmuir turbulence under different idealized forcing conditions. We find that the parameterization of RH18 is able to reproduce the mixing simulated by the LES in the non-Langmuir cases, but not the Langmuir cases. We therefore investigate the enhancement of the integrated vertical buoyancy flux within the entrainment layer in the presence of Langmuir turbulence using the LES data. An additional factor is introduced in the RH18 framework to capture the enhanced mixing due to Langmuir turbulence. This additional factor depends on the surface-layer averaged Langmuir number with a reduction in the presence of destabilizing surface buoyancy fluxes. It is demonstrated that including this factor within the RH18 OSBL turbulent mixing parameterization framework captures the simulated effect of Langmuir turbulence in the LES, which can be used for simulating the effect of Langmuir turbulence in climate simulations. This new parameterization is compared to the KPP-based Langmuir entrainment parameterization introduced by LF17, and differences are explored in detail.

Ocean surface winds, currents, and waves play a crucial role in exchanges of momentum, energy, heat, freshwater, gases, and other tracers between the ocean, atmosphere, and ice. Despite surface waves being strongly coupled to the upper ocean circulation and the overlying atmosphere, efforts to improve ocean, atmospheric, and wave observations and models have evolved somewhat independently. From an observational point of view, community efforts to bridge this gap have led to proposals for satellite Doppler oceanography mission concepts, which could provide unprecedented measurements of absolute surface velocity and directional wave spectrum at global scales. This paper reviews the present state of observations of surface winds, currents, and waves, and it outlines observational gaps that limit our current understanding of coupled processes that happen at the air-sea-ice interface. A significant challenge for the coming decade of wind, current, and wave observations will come in combining and interpreting measurements from (a) wave-buoys and high-frequency radars in coastal regions, (b) surface drifters and wave-enabled drifters in the open-ocean, marginal ice zones, and wave-current interaction "hot-spots", and (c) simultaneous measurements of absolute surface currents, ocean surface wind vector, and directional wave spectrum from Doppler satellite sensors.

Large-eddy simulations (LESs) with various constant wind, wave, and surface destabilizing surface buoyancy flux forcing are conducted, with a focus on assessing the impact of Langmuir turbulence on the entrainment buoyancy flux at the base of the ocean surface boundary layer. An estimate of the entrainment buoyancy flux scaling is made to best fit the LES results. The presence of Stokes drift forcing and the resulting Langmuir turbulence enhances the entrainment rate significantly under weak surface destabilizing buoyancy flux conditions, that is, weakly convective turbulence. In contrast, Langmuir turbulence effects are moderate when convective turbulence is dominant and appear to be additive rather than multiplicative to the convection-induced mixing. The parameterized unresolved velocity scale in the K-profile parameterization (KPP) is modified to adhere to the new scaling law of the entrainment buoyancy flux and account for the effects of Langmuir turbulence. This modification is targeted on common situations in a climate model where either Langmuir turbulence or convection is important and may overestimate the entrainment when both are weak. Nevertheless, the modified KPP is tested in a global climate model and generally outperforms those tested in previous studies. Improvements in the simulated mixed layer depth are found, especially in the Southern Ocean in austral summer.

The effects of Langmuir mixing on the surface ocean mixing may be parameterized by applying an enhancement factor which depends on wave, wind, and ocean state to the turbulent velocity scale in the K-Profile Parameterization. Diagnosing the appropriate enhancement factor online in global climate simulations is readily achieved by coupling with a prognostic wave model, but with significant computational and code development expenses. In this paper, two alternatives that do not require a prognostic wave model, (i) a monthly mean enhancement factor climatology, and (ii) an approximation to the enhancement factor based on the empirical wave spectra, are explored and tested in a global climate model. Both appear to reproduce the Langmuir mixing effects as estimated using a prognostic wave model, with nearly identical and substantial improvements in the simulated mixed layer depth and intermediate water ventilation over control simulations, but significantly less computational cost. Simpler approaches, such as ignoring Langmuir mixing altogether or setting a globally constant Langmuir number, are found to be deficient. Thus, the consequences of Stokes depth and misaligned wind and waves are important.

Large-Eddy Simulations (LES) have shown the effects of ocean surface gravity waves in enhancing the ocean boundary layer mixing through Langmuir turbulence. Neglecting this Langmuir mixing process may contribute to the common shallow bias in mixed layer depth in regions of the Southern Ocean and the Northern Atlantic in most state-of-the-art climate models. In this study, a third generation wave model, WAVEWATCH III, has been incorporated as a component of the Community Earth System Model, version 1.2 (CESM1.2). In particular, the wave model is now coupled with the ocean model through a modified version of the K-Profile Parameterization (KPP) to approximate the influence of Langmuir mixing. Unlike past studies, the wind-wave misalignment and the effects of Stokes drift penetration depth are considered through empirical scalings based on the rate of mixing in LES. Wave-Ocean only experiments show substantial improvements in the shallow biases of mixed layer depth in the Southern Ocean. Ventilation is enhanced and low concentration biases of pCFC-11 are reduced in the Southern Hemisphere. A majority of the improvements persist in the presence of other climate feedbacks in the fully coupled experiments. In addition, warming of the subsurface water over the majority of global ocean is observed in the fully coupled experiments with waves, and the cold subsurface ocean temperature biases are reduced.

Effects of wind and fresh water on the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) are investigated using a fully coupled climate model. The AMOC can change significantly when perturbed by either wind stress or freshwater flux in the North Atlantic. This study focuses on wind stress effect. Our model results show that the wind forcing is crucial in maintaining the AMOC. Reducing wind forcing over the ocean can cause immediately weakening of the vertical salinity diffusion and convection in the mid-high latitudes Atlantic, resulting in an enhancement of vertical salinity stratification that restrains the deep water formation there, triggering a slowdown of the thermohaline circulation. As the thermohaline circulation weakens, the sea ice expands southward and melts, providing the upper ocean with fresh water that weakens the thermohaline circulation further. The wind perturbation experiments suggest a positive feedback between sea-ice and thermohaline circulation strength, which can eventually result in a complete shutdown of the AMOC. This study also suggests that sea-ice variability may be also important to the natural AMOC variability on decadal and longer timescales.

The Earth’s climate has experienced dramatic changes over the past 22,000 years; however, the total meridional heat transport (MHT) of the climate system remains stable. A 22,000-year-long simulation using an ocean-atmosphere coupled model shows that the changes in atmosphere and ocean MHT are significant but tend to be out of phase in most regions, mitigating the total MHT change, which helps to maintain the stability of the Earth’s overall climate. A simple conceptual model is used to understand the compensation mechanism. The simple model can reproduce qualitatively the evolution and compensation features of the MHT over the past 22,000 years. We find that the global energy conservation requires the compensation changes in the atmosphere and ocean heat transports. The degree of compensation is mainly determined by the local climate feedback between surface temperature and net radiation flux at the top of the atmosphere. This study suggests that an internal mechanism may exist in the climate system, which might have played a role in constraining the global climate change over the past 22,000 years.

The meridional heat transport (MHT) in the climate system is investigated using a state-of-the-art coupled climate model (CESM1.0). This work decomposes the MHT and studies their physics in detail. The meridional ocean heat transport (OHT) can be decomposed into the contributions from the Euler mean circulation, bolus circulation, sub-mesoscale circulation and dissipation. The Euler mean heat transport dominates the total OHT in most latitudes, except that in the Southern Ocean (40–50°S) where the OHT is determined by the eddy-induced circulation and dissipation. In the Indo-Pacific the OHT is fulfilled by the wind-driven circulation, which dominates the total global OHT in the tropics. In the Atlantic the OHT is carried by both the wind-driven circulation and the thermohaline circulation, and the latter dominates the total OHT in the mid-high latitudes. The meridional atmosphere heat transport consists of the dry static energy (DSE) and latent energy (LE) transport. In the tropics the LE transport is equatorward and compensates partially the poleward DSE transport. In the extratropics, the LE and DSE are poleward and reinforce one another, both of which are dominated by the eddy components. The LE transport can be considered as the "joint air–sea mode" since the ocean controls the moisture supply. It can be also precisely obtained from the evaporation minus precipitation over the ocean and thus this work quantifies the individual ocean basin contributions to the LE transport.

Ocean surface gravity waves, especially the resulting Langmuir turbulence, affect the ocean surface vertical mixing, yet are missing in most of the global climate models (GCM). The lack of explicit representation of such effects in GCMs may contribute to persistent biases in the simulated ocean mixed layer depth (MLD), air-sea fluxes and temperature distribution and tracer concentrations in the upper ocean. To assess the effects of Langmuir turbulence on the simulation of global climate, parameterizations are developed based on large eddy simulations (LES) of the ocean surface boundary layer (OSBL), which are able to simulate some of the key features of Langmuir turbulence. In particular, two effects of Langmuir turbulence are distinguished: enhanced vertical mixing within the OSBL, and enhanced entrainment at the base of the OSBL. The former is parameterized by a wave-related enhancement factor on the turbulent velocity scale in the K-Profile Parameterization (KPP) based on the scaling law of the root-mean-square vertical velocity from previous studies. The latter is parameterized by a wave-related unresolved shear term in KPP based on the scaling law of the entrainment buoyancy flux from a new set of LES experiments. The latter approach is supported by further analyses of the structure and anisotropy of Langmuir turbulence, which show no significant impact of Langmuir turbulence on the predominant processes that drive entrainment at the base of the OSBL except the extra energy through enhanced downward TKE transport. The modified KPP is then implemented and tested in the NCAR earth system model, CESM. A state-of-the-art ocean surface wave model, WAVEWATCH III, is incorporated into CESM to provide the necessary wave information. It is found that accounting for both effects of Langmuir turbulence in CESM significantly reduces the shallow MLD biases in the Southern Ocean, and improves the simulated intermediate water ventilation and ocean subsurface temperature. To avoid large computational and code development expenses of coupling a prognostic wave model with a climate model, two statistical approaches to parameterize the effects of Langmuir turbulence are explored and tested in CESM. Both appear to reproduce the effects of Langmuir turbulence as estimated using WAVEWATCH III with significantly less computational cost.